TUNISIA

a view of Tunisia, courtesy, NotesFromCamelidCountry.net

The following article is a follow-up to the previous, and other, articles on this blog. (see postings on Tunis, Er Riadh, and Djerba.)

Tunisia, officially the Republic of Tunisia, is an Arab-occupied country located in the northernmost area of Africa. The indigenous people of Tunisia, as with the rest of North Africa and presently under Arab occupation, are the Amazigh (Berbers) of various tribes who have lived there since early antiquity. In Tunisia, the most notable of these tribes are the Chenini, Douiret, Djerba, and Matmata. In around the 12^th century BCE, their ancestors, namely the Gaetulians, were joined by the Phoenicians who established several settlements, of which Carthage emerged as the most powerful by the 7th century BCE. After a series of wars with the Greek city-states of Sicily in the 5th century BCE, the Carthaginian kingdom became dominant in the Western Mediterranean. Meanwhile, groups of Persians settled in the area, intermarried with the Gaetulians and became the Numidians. They established the Kingdom of Numidia of which, its greatest king was Masinissa who reigned from 202 BCE to 148 BCE. As a result, two powers ruled North Africa – Carthage and Numidia. A Carthaginian invasion of Italy led by Hannibal during the Second Punic War, one of a series of wars with Rome, nearly crippled the rise of Roman power. But Rome managed to defeat Carthage with the help of Numidia in 202 BCE resulting in Carthage functioning as a client state of Rome for the next 50 years. But Carthage remained a major mercantile center and a military rival of Rome and during the Third Punic War in 146 BCE, it was again defeated by Numidia on Rome’s behalf. Numidia took over all the Carthaginian kingdom but Rome was the true overlord and ruled over Numidian territory for most of the next 800 years. Carthage was then renamed “Africa” and became incorporated as a Roman province. During this period, the area of what is now Tunisia enjoyed tremendous economic development especially in agriculture. In the first half of the 3^rd century, the second biggest amphitheater in the Empire was built, in the town of El Djem. Christianity was introduced in the 4^th century resulting in the formation of several Christian sects, most notably, the Donatists founded by the Berber bishop Donatus Magnus. After several attempts starting in 647 and culminating 50 years later, Arab Muslims conquered all of Tunisia bringing Islam and Arab culture to the local inhabitants. Islam soon became the dominant religion.

The following indigenous rulers ruled, what is now Tunisia, since the 10^th century.

The Berber Zirid dynasty, appointed to rule North Africa by the Arab Fatimid dynasty, with its capital at Achir, today in Algeria:

·         Abul-Futuh Sayf ad-Dawla Buluggin ibn Ziri (972-984 CE)

·         Abul-Fat'h al-Mansur ibn Buluggin (984-996 CE)

·         Abu Qatada Nasir ad-Dawla Badis ibn Mansur (996-1016 CE) moved capital to Kairouan in 1014

·         Sharaf ad-Dawla al-Muizz ibn Badis (1016–1062 CE) declared independence from the Fatimids in favor of recognizing the Abbasid caliphate in 1048. In retaliation, the Fatimids sent in the Arab Bedouin Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym tribes who then pillaged and devastated the area. Capital then moved to Mahdia in 1057

The Khurasanid dynasty, appointed initially by the Hammadid dynasty who were rivals of the Zirids, capital at Tunis:

·         1062-1095 : Abd al-Haqq ibn Abd al-Aziz ibn Khurasan

·         1095-1105 : Abd al-Aziz ibn Abd al-Haqq

·         1105-1107 : Ismail ibn Abd al-Haqq

·         1107-1128 : Ahmad ibn Abd al-Aziz

·         1128-1148 : Hammadid annexation, wrested by the Norman kings of Sicily (1148)

·         1148 : Cadi Abu Muhammad Abd al-Mumin ibn Abu al-Hasan (elected, not belonging to the Khurasanid Dynasty)

·         1148 : Muhriz ibn Ziyab (from the Banu Riyah tribe, not belonging to the Dynasty)

·         1148-1149 : Abu Bakr ibn Ismail

·         1149-1159 : Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Aziz

·         1159 : Ali ibn Ahmad ibn Abd al-Aziz; Almohad conquest

Almohad rulers:

·         Abd al-Mu'min 1130–1163

·         Abu Ya'qub Yusuf I 1163–1184

·         Abu Yusuf Ya'qub 'al-Mansur' 1184–1199

·         Muhammad al-Nasir 1199–1213

Hafsid rulers, initially appointed by the Almohads, capital at Tunis:

·         Abu Muhammad Abd al-Wahid ibn Abi Hafs (1207–1221)

·         Abu Muhammad Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Wahid (1226–1228)

·         Abu Zakariya Yahya (1228–1249)

·         Muhammad I al-Mustansir (1249–1277)

·         Yahya II al-Wathiq (1277–1279)

·         Ibrahim I (1279–1283)

·         Abd al-Aziz I (1283)

·         Ibn Abi Umara (1283–1284)

·         Abu Hafs Umar bin Yahya (1284–1295)

·         Abu Asida Muhammad II (1295–1309)

·         Abu Yahya Abu Bakr ash-Shahid (1309)

·         Abu-l-Baqa Khalid An-Nasr (1309–1311)

·         Abd al-Wahid Zakariya ibn al-Lihyani (1311–1317)

·         Abu Darba Muhammad Al-Mustansir (1317–1318)

·         Abu Yahya Abu Bakr II (1318–1346)

·         Abu-l Abbas Ahmad (1346)

·         Abu Hafs Umar II (1346-7)

·         Abu al-Abbas Ahmad al-Fadl al-Mutawakkil (1350)

·         Abu Ishaq Ibrahim II (1350–1369)

·         Abu-l-Baqa Khalid II (1369–1370)

·         Ahmad II (1370–1394)

·         Abd al-Aziz II (1394–1434)

·         Abu Abd-Allah Muhammad al-Muntasir (1434–1435)

·         Abu 'Amr 'Uthman (1436–1488)

·         Abu Zakariya Yahya II (1488–1489)

·         Abd al-Mu'min (Hafsid) (1489–1490)

·         Yahya Zakariya (1490–1494)

·         Abu Abdallah Muhammad IV al-Mutawakkil (1494–1526)

·         Muhammad V (“Moulay Hasan”) (1526–1543); Ottoman conquest, conflict between Turkey and Spain centered on kingdom

·         Ahmad III (1543–1569)

·         Ottoman re-conquest (1569–1573)

·         Muhammad VI (1573–1574)

Since then, the Amazigh became marginalized by the increasingly dominant Arabs colonists and their descendants. But indigenous Amazigh history and culture continued, mainly in the south of the country, and in spite of the constant pressure of Arabization. In 1850, the Douiret Berber population was around 3500. The town of Douiret had been an important caravan stop between Gabès to the north and the Libyan city of Ghdamès to the south for many generations. In the 20th century, the town had seen its population progressively decrease as many of its inhabitants migrated northward, mainly to Tunis.

Later in the century, the town of Chenini and the surrounding Tataouine district, the domain of the Chenini Berbers, became associated with the Star Wars film series. Many scenes for the movies were filmed in the area. Today, the main villages of the Chenini are Chenini, Tataouine, Douiret, Ksar Ouled Soltane, and Ksar Hadada. By the close of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century, the old village of Douiret had virtually transformed into a ghost town in ruins as the few remaining families opted to move to the new village of Douiret built at the mountain foothills not far from their ancestors' historic site.

Throughout the centuries of Arab occupation, the indigenous languages have stubbornly continued to be spoken among the Amazigh. The Djerba language, called chelha by its speakers, is still spoken in some villages on Djerba island, including Guellala, Azdyuch, Sedouikech and Ouirsighen. These villages are bilingual, because of the imposition of Arab culture. The language of the Matmata Berbers is called Tmaziyt, or Eddwi nna, a Zenati Berber dialect spoken around the town of Matmâta and in the villages of Taoujjout, Tamezret and Zrawa.

Throughout the 20^th century and even after the “Arab Spring”, the indigenous people began to make themselves felt politically. In 1934, Bahri Guiga co-founded the Neo Destour Party. Mohammed Salah Mzali served as Prime Minister from 1953 to 1954. Driss Guiga became General Secretary of the National Assembly in 1956, and later as General Commissioner of Tourism, State Secretary for Public Health and Social Affairs, and Minister of Education. Mohammed Mzali served as Prime Minister from 1980 to 1986. After the “Arab Spring” overthrow of the Arab occupation regime – in favor of another Arab occupation regime – the fight for indigenous Amazigh rights culminated in the founding of Akal led by Samir al Nefzi. It was soon to become a political party.