ASSYRIA

St. George Assyrian Church, Baghdad, courtesy spc.rs

The country that is now called “Iraq” is yet another Arab-occupied country where the Arabs claim indigeneity. But the fact is that they are no more indigenous to Iraq than they are to Israel or Lebanon or Algeria. Among the groups of people who really are indigenous are the Assyrian Christians (along with the Kurds/Yazidis and the “Marsh Arabs”). Once the center of a powerful empire, feared by their neighbors, the Assyrians of today are a persecuted minority throughout Iraq, mainly at the mercy of their Arab occupier overlords. But not solely by the Arabs as their ancestral territory also covers what is today, Syria, southern Turkey, and northwestern Iran, which makes them subject to persecutions from Turks and Iranians as well.

The name Assyria is possibly derived from Ashur, a descendant of Noah. According to the Bible in Genesis, chapter 10, verses 11 and 12: “Out of that land (Shinar) went forth Asshur, and built Nineveh, and the city Rehoboth, and Calah, and Resen between Nineveh and Calah: the same is a great city.” According to historians, this was the beginning of the Old Assyrian Empire. Aside from Ashur, other well-known emperors include:

             Sargon I, Ashur II, Naram Sin, and Shamshi Adad I/II/III.

The Middle Assyrian Empire (c. 1380 BCE-c. 911 BCE) was founded by Eriba Adad I. His successors included:

Shalmaneser I, Tiglat Pileser I, Shamshi Adad IV, Ashurnasirpal I, Shalmaneser II, and Tiglat Pileser II.

The Neo-Assyrian Empire, which lasted until 609 BCE, included:

Adad Nirari II, the first king of this period, Ashurnasirpal II, Shalmaneser III, Shamshi Adad V, Shalmaneser IV, Tiglat Pileser III, Shalmaneser V, Sargon II, Sennacherib, Esarhadon, Ashurbanipal, and Ashur Ubalit II, the last king of this period.

In 609 BCE, Assyria was taken over, and incorporated into, the Babylonian Empire under Nabopolassar. Nabopolassar was succeeded by the great Nebuchadnezzar, Evil Merodach, and then later, by Nabonidus. Other well-known rulers of this period were:

Cyrus the Great, Cambyses II, Darius the Great, Artaxerxes, Seleucus Nicator, Antiochus the Great, and Antiochus Epiphanes. Antiochus Dionysus was the last king of this period before being taken over by the Greek Seleucid Empire under Diodotus Tryphon.

The Seleucids, in turn, were taken over by the Parthians in 63 BCE possibly under Phraates III. Assyria continued to be ruled by Parthia until the year 222. During this time, Saint Thaddeus visited the region, and he, along with many other apostles, converted the Assyrians to Christianity. Their own unique church was established in 66 and it came to have authority over them (in varying degrees) ever since.  

Over the centuries, the Assyrian church underwent many changes and evolutions. The seat of the main church was established in the town of Edessa in 66, today in southern Turkey and Mar Aggai, a disciple of Saint Thaddeus, was chosen as leader. He was followed by:

·         Palut of Edessa (c.81-87) renamed Mar Mari (c.87 – c.121) During his reign, a bishopric was formally established at Seleucia-Ctesiphon today, the Arab-occupied town of al-Madain in central Iraq.

·         Abris (Abres or Ahrasius) (121–148 AD) 

·         Abraham (Abraham I of Kashker) (148–171 AD)

·         Yaʿqob I (Mar Yacob I) (c. 172–190 AD) his son

·         Ebid M’shikha (191–203)

·         Ahadabui (Ahha d'Aboui) (204–220 AD) First bishop of the East to get status as Catholic. Ordained in 231 AD in Jerusalem Council.

·         Shahaloopa of Kashker (Shahlufa) (220–266 AD)

·         Bar Aggai (267–c. 280) consecrated c. 280 as Bishop of Seleucia-Ctesiphon, thereby establishing the succession. With him, the heads of the church took the title Catholicos.

·         Shemʿon bar Sabbaʿe (Simeon Barsabae) (coadjutor 317–336, Catholicos from 337–341 AD)

·         Shahdost (Shalidoste) (341–343 AD)

·         Barbaʿshmin (Barbashmin) (343–346 AD). The apostolic see of Edessa becomes completely abandoned in 345 AD due to persecutions against the Church of the East by the Sassanid Empire of Persia.

·         Tomarsa (Toumarsa) (346–370 AD)

·         Qayyoma (Qaioma) (371–399 AD)

·         Isaac (399–410 AD) recognised as 'Grand Metropolitan' and Primate of the Church of the East at the Synod of Seleucia-Ctesiphon in 410. His reign was short-lived and later that year, Ahha succeeded him as Catholicos.

·         Yahballaha I (Yab-Alaha I) (415–420 AD)

·         Maʿna (Maana) (420 AD)

·         Farbokht (Frabokht) (421 AD)

·         Dadishoʿ (Dadishu I) 421–456 AD) In 424, the Church of the East declared itself independent of all other churches; thereafter, its Catholicoi began to use the additional title of Patriarch. During his reign, Nestorianism was denounced at the Council of Ephesus in 431.

·         Babowai (Babwahi) (457–484 AD)

·         Barsauma (484–485) opposed by

o    Acacius (Aqaq-Acace) (485–496/8 AD)

·         Babai (497–503)

·         Shila (503–523)

·         Elishaʿ (524–537)

o    Narsai intrusus (524–537)

·         Paul (539)

·         Aba I (540–552) In 544, the ordinances of the Council of Chalcedon were adopted.

·         Joseph (552–556/567 AD)

·         Ezekiel (567–581)

·         Ishoʿyahb I (582–595)

·         Sabrishoʿ I (596–604)

·         Gregory (605–609)

o    vacant (609–628)

§  Babai the Great (coadjutor) 609–628; together with Abba (coadjutor) 609–628

·          Ishoʿyahb II (628–645) From 628, the Maphrian also began to use the title Catholicos.

In 636, the Arabs invaded and occupied the region and the Assyrians came under Arab control. They would later suffer from the constant wars between them, the Turks, and the Persians.

·         Maremmeh (646–649)

·         Ishoʿyahb III (649–659)

·         Giwargis I (661–680)

·         Yohannan I (680–683)

o    vacant (683–685)

·         Hnanishoʿ I (686–698)

o    Yohannan the Leper intrusus (691–693)

o    vacant (698–714)

·         Sliba-zkha (714–728)

o    vacant (728–731)

·         Pethion (731–740)

·         Aba II (741–751)

·         Surin (753)

·         Yaʿqob II (753–773)

·         Hnanishoʿ II (773–780)

In 775, the seat transferred from Seleucia-Ctesiphon to Baghdad, the recently established capital of the ʿAbbasid caliphs.

·         Timothy I (780–823)

·         Ishoʿ Bar Nun (823–828)

·         Giwargis II (828–831)

·         Sabrishoʿ II (831–835)

·         Abraham II (837–850)

o    vacant (850–853)

·         Theodosius (853–858)

o    vacant (858–860)

·         Sargis (860–872)

o    vacant (872–877)

·         Israel of Kashkar intrusus (877)

·         Enosh (877–884)

·         Yohannan II bar Narsai (884–891)

·         Yohannan III (893–899)

·         Yohannan IV Bar Abgar (900–905)

·         Abraham III (906–937)

·         Emmanuel I (937–960)

·         Israel (961)

·         ʿAbdishoʿ I (963–986)

·         Mari (987–999)

·         Yohannan V (1000–1011)

·         Yohannan VI bar Nazuk (1012–1016)

o    vacant (1016–1020)

·         Ishoʿyahb IV bar Ezekiel (1020–1025)

o    vacant (1025–1028)

·         Eliya I (1028–1049)

·         Yohannan VII bar Targal (1049–1057)

o    vacant (1057–1064)

·         Sabrishoʿ III (1064–1072)

·         ʿAbdishoʿ II ibn al-ʿArid (1074–1090)

·         Makkikha I (1092–1110)

·         Eliya II Bar Moqli (1111–1132)

·         Bar Sawma (1134–1136)

o    vacant (1136–1139)

·         ʿAbdishoʿ III Bar Moqli (1139–1148)

·         Ishoʿyahb V (1149–1176)

·         Eliya III (1176–1190)

·         Yahballaha II (1190–1222)

·         Sabrishoʿ IV Bar Qayyoma (1222–1224)

·         Sabrishoʿ V ibn al-Masihi (1226–1256)

·         Makkikha II (1257–1265)

·         Denha I (1265–1281)

·         Yahballaha III (1281–1317)

The Patriarchal Seat was transferred to Maragha today, the town of Marageh in northwestern Iran.

·         Timothy II (1318–c. 1332)

o    vacant (c. 1332–c. 1336)

·         Denha II (1336/7–1381/2)

·         Shemʿon II (c. 1365 – c. 1392) (dates uncertain)

·         Shemʿon III (c. 1403 – c. 1407) (existence uncertain)

·         Eliya IV (c. 1437)

·         Shemʿon IV Basidi (1437–1493, ob.1497)

·         Shemʿon V (1497–1501)

·         Eliya V (1502–1503)

·         Shemʿon VI (1504–1538)

·         Shemʿon VII Ishoʿyahb (1539–1558) By the Schism of 1552 the Church of the East was divided into many splinters but two main factions, of which one (the Church of Assyria and Mosul) entered into full communion with the Catholic Church in Rome, and the other remained independent. In 1553, the leader of this breakaway church, Shem’on Sulaqa was consecrated by the pope, “Patriarch of Mosul and Athur, Patriarch of the Chaldeans”. He founded the Shem’on line and had his seat at Amid, now the town of Diyarbakir in southern Turkey. He was succeeded in 1555 by Abdisho IV Maron who moved the Chaldean seat to nearby Siirt.

·         Eliya (VI) VII (1558–1591) founder of the Eliya line that had its seat in Elkosh, today, in northern Iraq. The Chaldeans were headed by Shem’on VIII Yahballaha beginning in 1570. He was succeeded, ten years later, by Shem’on IX Dinkha who moved the patriarchal seat to Urmia, today, in northwestern Iran.

·         Eliya (VII) VIII (1591–1617) in 1600, the Chaldean church moved their seat to nearby Salmas and Shem’on X Eliya became its head. Meanwhile, Eliya VIII negotiated with the Catholic Church in 1605, 1610 and 1615-1616 without final conclusion

·         Eliya (VIII) IX Shemʿon (1617–1660) - canceled further negotiations with the Catholic Church. In 1638, the Chaldean church was headed by Shem’on XI Eshuyow. He was succeeded in 1656 by Shem’on XII Yoalaha.

·         Eliya (IX) X Yohannan Marogin (1660–1700) during his reign, in 1681, the Eliya line split in two and the Catholic Joseph line was established headed by Joseph I with its seat in Amid. This church was in full communion with Rome. The main Chaldean church under Shem’on XIII Dinkha, broke with Rome in 1692 and thenceforth, became known as the Assyrian Church of the East. Its seat was moved to Qochanis, today, known as the town of Konak in southeastern Turkey. (In 1696, Joseph I was succeeded by Joseph II Sliba Maruf.)

·         Eliya (X) XI Marogin (1700–1722) and Shem’on XIV Shlemon headed the newly re-formed Assyrian church. Joseph III Timothy Maroge headed the new Catholic church at Amid.

·         Eliya (XI) XII Denha (1722–1778) and Shem’on XV Mikhail Mukhtas headed the Assyrian church beginning in 1740. Joseph IV Lazare Hindi headed the new Catholic church at Amid.

·         Eliya (XII) XIII Ishoʿyahb (1778–1804) and Shem’on XVI Yohanan headed the Assyrian church.

In 1780, another group split from the Eliya line and elected:

·         Yohannan VIII Hormizd (1780–1830), and Joseph V Augustine Hindi headed the new Catholic church. The Eliya line in Alqosh ended in 1804, and the branch of Yohannan VIII Hormizd that was in communion with Rome, merged with the Catholic Joseph line in Amid. Shem’on XVII Abraham became Assyrian Patriarch at Qochanis (1820-1861) while Yohannan VIII Hormizd was recognised by the Holy See as Patriarch of Babylon of the Chaldeans in 1830. This merged line, which relocated the see to Mosul, formed the contemporary unbroken patriarchal line of the Chaldean Catholic Church. In 1839, Hormizd was succeeded by Nicholas I Zaya, and then Joseph VI Audo.

·         Shemʿon XVIII Rubil (1861–1903) succeeded Shem’on XVII as Assyrian patriarch. Eliya XIV became head of the Chaldean church in 1878. He was succeeded in 1894 by Audishu V Khayyath and then by Yousef Emmanuel Thomas.

·         Shemʿon XIX Benjamin (1903–1918), due to the massacres of World War I, known as the Seyfo, the Residence in Qochanis ended in 1915 and then alternately removed to Urmia and Salmas. Shem’on was assassinated in 1918 breaking up the multi-national nature of the Church of the East leaving many non-Assyrian Bishops isolated in different parts of the world to continue their independent Churches of the East autonomously

·         Shemʿon XX Paul (1918–1920) moved the patriarchate to Mosul.

o    Locum Tenens:

§  Yosip Khnanisho (coadjutor) (1918–1920)

§  Abimalek Timotheus (coadjutor) (1920)

·         Shemʿon XXI Eshai (1920–1975) – forced into exile in 1933, the patriarchate temporarily resided in Cyprus before relocating to Chicago in 1940, and then to San Francisco in 1954.He resigned in 1973, although unofficially, he still remained patriarch. He was assassinated in San Jose, California. His death led to the end of the Shemʿon line. Yousef VII Ghanima became head of the Chaldean church in 1946. He moved the Chaldean seat to Baghdad and, in 1958, was succeeded by Paul II Cheikho.

·         Dinkha IV (17 October 1976 – 26 March 2015) – first canonically elected Patriarch since 1600. Relocated the patriarchate to Chicago in 1980 after temporarily living in Tehran. Abolished hereditary succession upon his election. In 1989, Raphael I Bidawid became head of the Chaldean church. He was succeeded in 2003 by Emmanual III Delly and then by Louis Raphael I Sako in 2013.

o    Locum Tenens: Aprem Mooken (26 March 2015 – 18 September 2015)

·         Gewargis III – on 18 September 2015, designated Catholicos-Patriarch elect by the Holy Synod of the Assyrian Church of the East. Consecrated and enthroned on 27 September 2015, in the Cathedral Church of St. John the Baptist, Erbil.

ASHKELON

courtesy Wikipedia

Ashkelon today is one of the major ports of Israel located on the southern coast. Its population of over 130,000 is made up of the descendants of Jewish refugees from the Middle East and North Africa, and also immigrants from South Africa, UK, Ethiopia, and Russia.

In the time of Joshua, Ashkelon became one of the five major cities of the Philistines. Even though it was allotted to the tribe of Judah, the Israelites were never able to conquer it and it was, consequently, at constant war with them and later, the Kingdom of Judah. 

During the Assyrian invasion in the 8^th century BCE, Ashkelon allied with King Hezekiah. Later, it was the last of the Philistine cities to hold out against Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II. When it fell in 604 BCE, it was burnt and destroyed and its people taken into exile thus, extinguishing the Philistines as a people.

Ashkelon was thereafter repopulated by various gentile peoples but it also contained a sizable Jewish community after the Babylonian captivity. This community flourished under the Egyptian Ptolemies in the early 2^nd century BCE. It later had mostly friendly relations with the Hasmonean and Herodian kingdoms of Judea. It surrendered twice to Jonathan the Maccabbee and later, to Alexander Jannaeus. In a significant case of an early witch-hunt, during the reign of the Hasmonean queen Salome Alexandra, the court of Simeon ben Shetach sentenced to death eighty women in Ashkelon who had been charged with sorcery. Herod the Great, who became a client king of Rome over Judea and its surroundings in 38 BCE, had not received Ashkelon, yet he built monumental buildings there: bath houses, elaborate fountains and large colonnades, and his sister Salome resided there.

The city remained loyal to Rome during the Great Revolt, 66–70 AD. During the revolt, Jewish forces tried several times to conquer the city but without success. Jews continued to live and flourish in Ashkelon, however, and during the Byzantine era from the 4^th – 7^th centuries, they built their own synagogue. Their local orchards became famous and a city fair was held every year. Under Fatimid Arab rule in the 10^th century, the Jewish community was known as the Kehal Ashkelon and the Kahal Kadosh (according to letters found in the Cairo Genizah).

After the Crusader conquest of Jerusalem, many Jews fled to Ashkelon escaping Crusader atrocities. The six elders of the local Karaite Jewish community contributed to the ransoming of captured Jews and holy relics from Jerusalem. The Letter of the Karaite elders of Ascalon, which was sent to the Jewish elders of Alexandria, described their participation in the ransom effort and the ordeals suffered by many of the freed captives. At the same time, members of the Jewish community were in constant touch with Jewish centers abroad. For example in 1110, letters were sent to the head of the "Gaon Jacob Yeshivah," which was exiled from the country. After the Crusader conquest in 1153, part of the Jewish population remained in Ashkelon. Benjamin of Tudela (c. 1170) described it as "a large and beautiful town, which contains two hundred Jews, and apart from them, several dozen Karaites and about three hundred Samaritans." A few hundred Jews were living in Ashkelon in the second half of the 12th century, but moved to Jerusalem when the city was destroyed in 1191. Information also exists on the settlement of Samaritans in the 13^th century.

Throughout the rule of the Ottoman Empire (1516-1917), there was no Jewish community in Ashkelon. After the invasion of Israel by Napoleon, the Jewish community of Gaza was destroyed by the invading French with the active participation of the local Arabs. When Israel was briefly invaded and occupied by Arab forces from Egypt (1831-1840), Ibrahim Pasha, the commander of Egyptian forces, took the stones from Gaza’s ruined synagogue and used them to build a fort in Ashkelon. At the same time, Arabs were brought in from Egypt to settle there and the town of al Majdal was established.

In 1948, the city was re-captured by Egyptian Arab forces who were on their way to conquer Tel Aviv. However, it was taken by Israeli forces later that year. Tel Aviv was saved and the Arab population fled along with the Egyptian army. It was later settled by Jewish refugees from throughout the Middle East and North Africa.

Thereafter, it was named “Migdal Ashkelon” but in 1953, the nearby neighborhood of Afridar was incorporated and the name "Ashkelon" was returned to the town.