AFGHANISTAN

Afghanistan is another one of those countries that has been in the news once or twice recently. The Islamic Emirate, whose population is composed mostly of ethnic Pashtuns, Tajiks, Hazaras, and Uzbeks, could be considered part of the “Greater Middle East” and in fact, none of Afghanistan’s neighbors are “Arab countries”. Indeed, it is sandwiched between the major countries of that region – Iran to the west and Pakistan to the east and south – as if that’s better. It is also bordered by Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan to the north, and Tajikistan and China to the northeast. Human habitation in Afghanistan dates back to the Middle Paleolithic era, and the country's strategic location along the historic Silk Road connected it to the cultures of other parts of Asia as well as Europe, leaving behind the mosaic of ethnolinguistic and religious groups, mentioned above. The land has also witnessed numerous military campaigns throughout its history including those by Alexander the Great, the Maurya Empire, Muslim Arabs, and the Mongols. Afghanistan also served as the source from which the Greco-Bactrians and the Mughals, among others, rose to form major empires. The various conquests and periods in both the Indian and Persian cultural spheres made the area a center for Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, Hinduism, and later Islam throughout history. The modern state of Afghanistan began with the Durrani dynasty in the 18th century. This empire, at its peak, ruled an area stretching from eastern Iran to northern India. Following its decline, and the death of Timur Shah, it was divided into the smaller independent kingdoms of Herat, Kandahar and Kabul, before being reunited in the 19th century after wars of unification led by Dost Mohammad Khan. During this time, Afghanistan became a buffer state in the "Great Game" between British India and the Russian Empire. The British in India attempted to subjugate the country but were repelled in the First Anglo-Afghan War; in the second Anglo-Afghan war, the British successfully established a protectorate. Following a third war in 1919, the country became free of foreign dominance, and eventually emerged as the independent Kingdom of Afghanistan in June 1926 under Amanullah Khan. This kingdom lasted almost 50 years, until Zahir Shah was overthrown in 1973, following which a republic was established. Afghanistan's history since the late 1970s has been dominated by coups, revolutions, invasions, insurgencies and civil wars, not to mention, a Soviet invasion and occupation and, after 9/11, an invasion by an American-led coalition force which hunted down the terrorist network that was responsible for the attacks on New York and Washington. Mission accomplished, the eventual American withdrawal unfortunately, ended up in a big mess. Today, the country is under the control of the Islamist Taliban, which came back to power after a 20-year long war. In the meantime, Afghanistan has witnessed high levels of terrorism, poverty, and child malnutrition, and an economy that ranks number 96 in the world. See this BBC report. Women’s rights are another issue of concern. See this video clip as reported by NBC News and this clip by the PBS NewsHour. 

JERUSALEM PAST AND PRESENT

Jerusalem has been the capital of the nation of Israel for over 3000 years since the time of King David, probably making it the longest serving capital city in the world. But because it is the Jewish capital, the present international community refuses to recognize it as such. So if you’re looking for some juicy anti-Semitic propaganda like distinguishing between “Arab East” and “West” Jerusalem, I suggest you go to the websites of the BBC or the Guardian or the LA Times or the NY Times, but you won’t find such propaganda here. I refuse to do that. And because Jerusalem is the Jewish capital, this post will focus only on the Jewish aspects of the city (unless it is important to mention otherwise), so get used to it!!!

For a brief historical overview of the city, see this posting on this blog.

Jerusalem isn’t as violent as people think it is. This article in the online version of the Jerusalem Post (jpost.com) describes briefly the many cultural events in the city in the first week of February 2022.

YEMEN

Yemen, also known as South Arabia, is a country on the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula with a population estimated at over 30,000,000. Its constitutionally stated capital, and largest city, is Sana’a. Currently, Yemen is a member of the Arab League, the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.

In ancient times, the country was known as Saba (Sheba) and was the home of the Queen of Sheba. It was a trading state that included parts of modern-day Ethiopia and Eritrea. Saba was later followed by the Kingdom of Awsan. By 275 CE, Yemen was ruled by the Himyarites who had adopted Judaism. Christianity arrived in the fourth century. Islam spread quickly in the seventh century and Yemenite troops were crucial to the Islamic conquests that followed. Several dynasties emerged between the 9th and 16th centuries and in the 19th century, the country was divided between the Ottoman (North Yemen) and British (South Yemen) empires. After World War I, the Zaydi Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen was established in South Yemen but was overthrown in 1962 and the Yemen Arab Republic, a British protectorate, was created in its place. It remained a British protectorate until 1967 when it became independent. In 1990, North and South Yemen united to form the modern Republic of Yemen (al-Jumhūrīyah al-Yamanīyah) with Ali Abdullah Saleh as president. With the outbreak of the Arab Spring, the people of Yemen took to the streets to protest widespread poverty, unemployment, corruption, and Saleh's plan to amend the constitution and eliminate the presidential term limit. Eventually, Saleh stepped down and the powers of the presidency were transferred to Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi. Since then, the country has been in a civil war (alongside the Saudi Arabian-led military intervention aimed at restoring Hadi's government) with several proto-state entities claiming to govern Yemen. At least 56,000 civilians and combatants have been killed since January 2016. The ongoing humanitarian crisis and conflict has received widespread criticism for having a dramatic worsening effect on Yemen's humanitarian situation, that some say has reached the level of a "humanitarian disaster". Today, Yemen belongs to the least developed country group, referring to its numerous "severe structural impediments to sustainable development". (see video)

ADEN

A lot of people have accused this blog of being anti-Arab. They often ask me if the Arabs have a place in the Middle East at all? First, I just want to categorically state that this blog is by no means anti-Arab or anti- anybody else. I do condemn the Arab occupation but that doesn’t mean I condemn the Arabs. Indeed, the Arabs have a very important place in the Middle East, but it can only come from their ancestral homeland, Arabia. Starting today, and from time to time, I will be posting articles on Arabia and its different localities – the good, the bad, and the stupid – three aspects that all nations around the world contain.

 

This posting today, will cover the city of Aden, a city with a population of approximately 800,000. It is located near the eastern approaches to the Red Sea on the Gulf of Aden, some 110 miles east of the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. Aden's natural harbor, Front Bay, lies in the crater of a dormant volcano, which now forms a peninsula joined to the mainland by a low isthmus. This harbor was first used by the ancient Kingdom of Awsan between the 7th to 5th centuries BCE. Khormaksar, located on the isthmus, includes the city's diplomatic missions, the main offices of Aden University, and Aden International Airport (the former British Royal Air Force station RAF Khormaksar), Yemen's second biggest airport. Aden was the capital of the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen until that country's unification with the Yemen Arab Republic in 1990, and again briefly served as Yemen's temporary capital during the aftermath of the Houthi takeover in Yemen in the Battle of Aden, March to July 2015. Water, food, and medical supplies ran short. On July 14, the Saudi Army launched an offensive to retake Aden for the Yemeni government. Within three days the Houthis had been removed from the city. Since February 2018, Aden has been seized by the Southern Transitional Council, that is supported by the UAE. Violence is still a factor of daily life as described by this article on the Al Jazeera website in 2021.

ETHIOPIA AND THE MIDDLE EAST

Ethiopia has been in the news a lot lately, especially concerning the troubles in Tigray province. But this blog is about the Middle East, and the Arab-occupied territories in particular. Obviously, Ethiopia is not an Arab country but would it be considered part of the Greater Middle East? That could be a subject of debate but in my opinion, the answer would be yes. Even though many of the local ethnicities are African, and some might be considered Middle Eastern, geographically, of the six countries that border Ethiopia, the country is sandwiched between three Arab-occupied countries who are members of the Arab League – Sudan on the west, and Djibouti and Somalia on the east. Eritrea on the north is an Arab League observer. Aside from Tigray, Ethiopia has a long-running feud with Somalia which is naturally allied with the ethnic Somalis in the neighboring Ogaden region which falls within the borders of Ethiopia. In between Djibouti and Somalia is the Republic of Somaliland which wants independence from Somalia and return to its non-Arab roots as represented by the ancient Land of Punt. (see article) Relations with Sudan and Egypt over its [Ethiopia’s] construction of the Grand Renaissance Dam on the Blue Nile River have been sorely tested recently. Relations with Israel go back centuries. It is said that the Ethiopian royal house was descended from the union between King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. During the late 30s/early 40s, when Italian fascist troops occupied Ethiopia, it was to the Land of Israel that Emperor Haile Selassie fled. Since that time, there was a kind of love/hate relationship between the two countries but relations have grown warmer in recent years. 

JORDAN

Jordan is one of those countries where you question the purpose of its existence, especially considering the fact that there is no historical basis for it except for its largely Jewish history which goes back to antiquity (see here and here).

Still, one must admit that, by Middle Eastern standards, Jordan is a pretty stable country considering there are many actors who would love to chop the heads off of the king and his entire family.

The “Jordanian” government has long had a strong alliance with the Zionists in Israel especially in regards to Temple Mount in Jerusalem where the Zionist government gleefully allows the “Jordanian” wakf, a Muslim trust responsible for, what they consider to be, Muslim holy places, total control, and enthusiastically agree to make Jewish prayer there illegal, which is itself illegal under international law (if not treason in this case). And not just in Jerusalem. See here.

During the pandemic, the “Jordanian” economy suffered just like every other economy around the world. But still in the midst of the pandemic, King Abdullah II is trying his best to revive the economy, especially in regards to tourism. (see article)

ABRAHAM AND THE CAVE OF MACHPELAH

the artist Guercino's depiction of Abraham,
courtesy, Wikipedia

In Hebron, there is a massive structure in the middle of town that was built during the time of King Herod. Inside, underneath the structure in a cave are most of the tombs of the Hebrew Patriarchs – Abraham and Sarah, Isaac and Rebecca, and Jacob and Leah (Rachel is buried just outside of Bethlehem). Tradition also states that this is also the burial site of Adam and Eve. This is the Cave of Machpelah, second holiest site in Judaism after Temple Mount in Jerusalem and for thousands of years, it has served as a place of Jewish pilgrimage. It was also long a subject of archeological study. In 1981 Seev Jevin, the former director of the Israel Antiquities Authority, entered the cave passage after a group of local Jews led by Noam Arnon had done so via the entrance near the mihrab and discovered the square stone in the round chamber that concealed the cave entrance. 

Abraham, the first of the Hebrew patriarchs and son of Terah, an idol maker, was born “Abram” in the town of Ur of the Chaldees in Sumer, today, in the Arab-occupied country of “Iraq”. Today, the descendants of the Sumerians, the “Marsh Arabs”, still live in their ancient territory, much of which, now constitutes the marshes of southern Iraq. They are often persecuted by the surrounding Arab settlers, most notably in recent times, by Saddam Hussein. In Abram’s time however, they belonged to a powerful empire and were largely city-dwellers and farmers, worshipping their local gods. In this atmosphere, Abram, while still young, came to the conclusion that there was only one god. How he came to that conclusion is not recorded but in later centuries, rabbis have often speculated as written in later rabbinic writings. Later, Abram, his wife (and half-sister) Sarai, his father Terah, and his nephew Lot and his family, left Ur for Haran, today, in southern Turkey, where Terah died. While sojourning there, Abram was commanded by god to leave Haran and to settle in “the land that I will show you.” He obeyed and taking his family, set out on the long journey south eventually arriving in Canaan. Upon their arrival, they settled in the hamlet of Elon Moreh, just a few miles outside of Shechem (Nablus). This was the first place in Canaan where Abram and his household settled. It was there that “the lord appeared to him and said, ‘Unto your seed will I give this land’” (Gen. 12:7). Eventually, Abram and his family made their way to the southern part of Canaan, today, the Negev desert. While there, disputes erupted between his sheepherders and those of Lot, causing Lot’s household to separate from Abram’s and eventually, they settled in the town of Sodom. Later, Abram and his household settled in Mamre on the northern outskirts of Hebron. At this point, he was still childless and with Sarai’s urging, he took her handmaid Hagar as a concubine. Soon after, Hagar became pregnant and began to oppress Sarai because of that. Again, through Sarai’s urging, Abram cast Hagar out of his household. Wandering aimlessly in the desert, god told her to return to Sarai and submit. She did so and soon, her son Ishmael was born. (Some scholars say that Ishmael was the father of the Arabs, but the Arabs are a people that pre-date Abraham.) It was at this time that god appeared to Abram and changed his name to “Abraham” (Heb. “Avraham” – “father of multitudes”), “for the father of a multitude of nations have I made you…And I will establish my covenant between me and you, and your seed after you in their generations for an everlasting covenant.” Sarai’s name was also changed from “Sarai” to “Sarah”. As a sign of this everlasting contract, Abraham instituted circumcision of every eight-day-old male child. With great daring, he pleaded with god not to destroy the wicked people of Sodom and Gomorrah, even if there were only ten righteous men among them. Ten righteous men could not be found and so the towns were destroyed, but not before three angels of god saved Lot and his family. Finally, at the age of 90, Sarah bore a son and named him Isaac. Eventually, both Hagar and Ishmael were banished from Abraham’s household again for their misbehaviors. This time, both mother and son began to wander aimlessly in the desert when god appeared to Hagar again and told her that Ishmael would become the father of a great nation but Isaac would inherit the succession from Abraham. In the story of the sacrifice of Isaac, Abraham’s submission to the will of god was tested. As commanded, he placed Isaac on the altar preparing to offer him up. An angel of god restrained him, “Lay not thy hand upon the lad…for now I know thou fearest god.” Then Abraham lifted up his eyes and saw a ram “caught up in a thicket by his horns.” This ram he sacrificed instead of his son. Sarah died in Kiryat Arba near Hebron at the age of 127. After Abraham’s mourning period, he requested from Ephron the Hittite, the son of Zohar and leading chieftain of the area, a burial place for his wife, himself, and his son and grandson and their wives. Ephron happened to own a cave at the end of a field known as Machpelah and Abraham offered to buy it for "the full price". Ephron replied that the field was worth four hundred shekels of silver and Abraham agreed to it without any further bargaining. And this was where Sarah was buried. The next burial in the cave was that of Abraham himself, who died at the age of 175 and was buried by his sons Isaac and Ishmael. The title deed to the cave was part of the property of Abraham that passed to his son Isaac. It has serve as a place of Jewish pilgrimage ever since.

Herodian building over the Cave of Machpelah, courtesy, Wikipedia

Between 31 and 4 BCE, Herod the Great built a large, rectangular enclosure over the cave to commemorate the site for his subjects. It is the only fully surviving Herodian structure from the period of Hellenistic Judaism. After the compilations of the Palestinian and Babylonian Talmuds in the 4^th and 6^th centuries respectively, Machpelah was often mentioned. The Piacenza Pilgrim (c. 570) noted in his pilgrimage account that Jews and Christians shared possession of the site. After the Arab Muslim conquest in the 7^th century, the Muslims permitted the building of two small synagogues at the site. When the Crusaders took control of it, Jews were banned from using the synagogues but access to the caves was occasionally allowed. During this period, the Damascene nobleman and historian Ibn al-Qalanisi in his chronicle alluded to the discovery of relics purported to be those of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, a discovery that excited eager curiosity among all three monotheistic communities in the southern Levant, especially among the Jews. Towards the end of the period of Crusader rule, in 1165 Maimonides visited Hebron and wrote, "On Sunday, 9 Marheshvan (17 October), I left Jerusalem for Hebron to kiss the tombs of my ancestors in the Cave. On that day, I stood in the cave and prayed, praise be to God, (in gratitude) for everything." In 1170, Benjamin of Tudela visited the Tombs of the Patriarchs which he referred to as the St. Abram Church. Shmuel ben Shimshon visited the cave in 1210 and stated that the visitor must descend by twenty-four steps in a passageway so narrow that the rock touches him on either hand. The successor to Crusader rule, the Mamluks, established a mosque at the site and forbade Jews from entering the cave at all, allowing them only as close as the fifth step on a staircase at the southeast, but after some time this was increased to the seventh step.

After Jordan occupied Judea and Samaria in 1948, no Jew was allowed in the territory and consequently, Jews could visit the tomb. Following the Israeli liberation in the Six-Day War, Hebron returned to Jewish control for the first time in 2,000 years and the 700-year-long restriction limiting Jews to the seventh step was lifted. According to the autobiography of the Chief Rabbi of the Israel Defense Forces, Major General Rabbi Shlomo Goren, on June 8, 1967, during the Six-day war, he (Goren) made his way from Gush Etzion to Hebron where he realized that the Arabs had surrendered and quickly made his way to the Cave of the Patriarchs. He entered and began to pray, becoming the first Jew to enter the compound in 700 years. While praying, a messenger from the Mufti of Hebron delivered a surrender note to him, whereby the rabbi replied, "This place, Ma'arat HaMachpela, is a place of prayer and peace. Surrender elsewhere." After the war, a small synagogue was reestablished under the mosque and the first Jewish wedding ceremony took place on the site on August 7, 1968. The first Jew to enter the underground caves was Michal Arbel, the 13-year-old daughter of Yehuda Arbel, chief of Shin Bet operations, on October 9, because she was slender enough to be lowered into the narrow, 11 inch wide hole. At the same time though, the Zionist authorities allowed Arab terrorism to be rife in the area. In 1968, a special arrangement was made to accommodate Jewish services on Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur. This led to a hand-grenade being thrown on the stairway leading to the tomb. 47 Israelis were injured, 8 seriously. On November 4, a large explosion went off near the gate to the compound and 6 people, Jews and Arabs, were wounded. On Yom Kippur eve, October 3, 1976, an Arab mob destroyed several Torah scrolls and prayer books at the tomb. In May 1980, an attack on Jewish worshippers returning from prayers at the tomb left 6 dead and 17 wounded.

In a rare showing of Jewish vigilantism on Arabs, the Cave of the Patriarchs massacre, February, 1994, committed by Baruch Goldstein, left 29 Arab Muslims dead and scores injured. The resulting riots led to a further 35 deaths. As a result, the Wye River Accords, signed between the Zionists and the Arabs, included a temporary status agreement for the site restricting access for both Jews and Muslims. As a result, the waqf (Islamic charitable trust) today controls 81% of the site. This includes the whole of the southeastern section, which lies above the only known entrance to the caves and possibly over the entirety of the caves themselves. Jews are restricted to entering by the southwestern side, and limited to the southwestern corridor and the corridors that run between the cenotaphs, while Muslims may enter only by the northeastern side but are allowed free rein of the remainder of the enclosure. As a consequence, Jews are not permitted to visit the Cenotaphs of Isaac or Rebecca, which lie entirely within the southeastern section, except for 10 days a year that hold special significance in Judaism. One of these days is the Shabbat Chayei Sarah, when the Torah portion concerning the death of Sarah and the purchase of the cave by Abraham, is read. In addition, the Zionists do not allow the Jewish religious authorities the right to maintain the site and allow only the waqf to do so. Tourists are permitted to enter but security has increased since the Intifada. On February 21, 2010, the Zionists uncommonly announced that it would include the site in a national heritage site protection and rehabilitation plan. Of course, an expected anti-Semitic reaction from much of the world followed.