MOROCCO

indigenous Amazigh (Berber) village, Morocco, courtesy,
123rf.com

Morocco is an Arab-occupied country located in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, with land borders with Algeria to the east and Western Sahara (status disputed) to the south. In addition to the Western Sahara, Morocco also claims the exclaves of Ceuta, Melilla and Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera, all of them under Spanish jurisdiction, as well as several small Spanish-controlled islands off its coast. The indigenous people presently living under Arab occupation are from various Berber tribes, mainly, the Chleuh, Riffian, Sanhaja, Zayane, and Zenata.

Thousands of years ago, various Berber tribes settled in the area. Medieval Arab historian Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406) brings down two opinions as to the Berbers' origin, writing that some say that they were descended from Canaan, son of Ham. But citing Abu Bakr bin Yahya al-Suli, Ibn Khaldun wrote that they are descended from Casluhim, the son of Mizraïm. Beginning around the 9^th century BCE, this area would slowly be drawn into the wider emerging Mediterranean world by the Phoenicians, who had established trading colonies and settlements including Volubilis, Chellah and Mogador. These centers were trading hubs, and later offered support for resource development such as olive oil at Volubilis and Tyrian purple dye at Mogador. For their part, most Berbers maintained their independence as farmers or semi-pastorals although, due to the exemplar of Carthage, their organized politics increased in scope and acquired sophistication. In 225 BCE, the Berber Mauri under their king Baga, began to inhabit ancient Mauretania (not to be confused with the present state of Mauritania). It later became a realm of the Northwest African civilization of ancient Carthage as part of its empire. It became a client kingdom of the Roman Empire in 33 BCE. In 44 CE, under the reign of King Ptolemy of Mauretania, the last king of Mauretania, Emperor Claudius annexed the country directly as a Roman province to be ruled by an imperial governor. The Mauretanian cavalry fought in the Dacian Wars under the indigenous military leader Lusius Quietus. During the crisis of the 3rd century, parts of Mauretania were reconquered by Berber tribes. Direct Roman rule then became confined to a few coastal cities, such as Septum (Ceuta) in Mauretania Tingitana and Cherchell in Mauretania Caesariensis. The Roman Empire lost its remaining possessions after the area was devastated by the Vandals in 429. Afterwards, local Mauro-Roman kings assumed control. The Eastern Roman Empire under Byzantine control re-established direct imperial rule in the 530s.

The Muslim conquest of the Maghreb, that started in the middle of the 7^th and into the 8^th centuries, was achieved by the Arab Umayyad Caliphate early into the following century. It brought both the Arabic language and Islam to the area. Although part of the larger Islamic Empire, Morocco was initially organized as a subsidiary province of Ifriqiya, with the local governors appointed by the Muslim governor in Kairouan. Even though the indigenous Berber tribes adopted Islam, they retained their customary laws. They also paid taxes and tribute to the new Muslim administration. Some achieved a high status in society under the new rulers. Tariq ibn Ziyad, Berber Muslim and Umayyad general, led in the Muslim conquest of Spain in 711.

The following are the Berber rulers of Morocco under the various indigenous dynasties:

Banū Salih rulers

·         Salih I ibn Mansur "al-`Abd as-Salih" (710-749) founder of the first independent Muslim state in Morocco and with its capital at Temsaman. This kingdom would later exist alongside the Barghawata kingdom.

·         al-Mu'tasim ibn Salih (749-?)

·         Idris I ibn Salih (?-760), who founded Nekor and made it capital of the kingdom.

·         Sa'id I ibn Idris (760-803)

·         Salih II ibn Sa'id (803-864)

·         Sa'id II ibn Salih (864-916)

·         Salih III ibn Sa'id (917-927)

·         Abd al-Badi' ibn Salih "el-Mu'ayyid" (927-929)

·         Abu Ayyub Isma'il ibn 'Abd al Malik ibn Abd ar-Rahman ibn Sa'id I ibn Salih (930?-935)

·         Musa ibn Rumi ibn Abd as-Sami` ibn Salih ibn Idris I ibn Salih (936?-940)

·         Abd as-Sami' ibn Jurthum ibn Idris ibn Salih I ibn Mansur (940-947)

·         Jurthum ibn Ahmad ibn Ziyadat Allah ibn Sa'id I ibn Idris (947-970)

Thenceforth, the kingdom remained in his line until the Azdâji emir Ya'la ibn Futuh conquered it in 1019 and expelled the family.

Barghawata kings

·         Tarif al-Matghari began a revolt against the Arab Umayyad occupation authorities that ultimately gave the Barghawata their independence.

·         Ṣāliḥ ibn Tarīf (744-?), declared himself prophet in 744 and went away at the age of 47, promising to return. Possibly during the reign of his successor, an Arab kingdom under the Idrisid dynasty arose alongside the Barghawata. It was they who allowed Arab immigrants to colonize and occupy Morocco, often coming into conflict with the Barghawata for the duration of the kingdom as a result.

·         Ilyas ibn Salih (?792-842)

·         Yunus ibn Ilyas (?842-888)

·         Abu-Ghufayl Muhammad (?888-917)

·         Abu al-Ansar Abdullah (?917-961)

·         Abu Mansur Isa (?961-?)

Almoravid dynasty

·         Abdallah ibn Yasin (1040–1059) – founder & spiritual leader, made Aghmat the Almoravid capital.

·         Yahya ibn Ibrahim (1048)

·         Yahya ibn Umar al-Lamtuni (c. 1050–1056)

·         Abu Bakr ibn Umar (1056–1087) – moved the capital to Marrakesh.

·         Yusuf ibn Tashfin (c. 1072–1106)

·         Ali ibn Yusuf (1106–43)

·         Tashfin ibn Ali (1143–45)

·         Ibrahim ibn Tashfin (1145–1147)

·         Ishaq ibn Ali (1147)

Almohad caliphs (1121–1269)

·         Ibn Tumart 1121–1130 made Tinmel the capital of the kingdom.

·         Abd al-Mu'min 1130–1163 moved the capital back to Marrakesh where he established the Kutubiyya Mosque.

·         Abu Ya'qub Yusuf I 1163–1184

·         Abu Yusuf Ya'qub 'al-Mansur' 1184–1199

·         Muhammad al-Nasir 1199–1213

·         Abu Ya'qub Yusuf II 'al-Mustansir' 1213–1224

·         Abu Muhammad Abd al-Wahid I 'al-Makhlu' 1224

·         Abdallah al-Adil 1224–1227

·         Yahya 'al-Mutasim' 1227–1229

·         Abu al-Ala Idris I al-Ma'mun, 1229–1232

·         Abu Muhammad Abd al-Wahid II 'al-Rashid' 1232–1242

·         Abu al-Hassan Ali 'al-Said' 1242–1248

·         Abu Hafs Umar 'al-Murtada', 1248–1266

·         Abu al-Ula (Abu Dabbus) Idris II 'al-Wathiq' 1266–1269

Marinid rulers

·         Abd al-Haqq I (1215–1217), capital in Taza.

·         Abu Sa'id Uthman I (1217–1240)

·         Abu Ma'ruf Muhammad I (1240–1244)

·         Abu Yahya ibn Abd al-Haqq (1244–1258), moved capital to Fez.

·         Abu Yusuf Yaqub (1258–1269)

·         Abu Yusuf Yaqub (1269–1286)

·         Abu Yaqub Yusuf al-Nasir (1286–1307)

·         Abu Thabit 'Amir (1307–1308)

·         Abu al-Rabi Sulayman (1308–1310)

·         Abu Sa'id Uthman II (1310–1331)

·         Abu al-Hasan 'Ali (1331–1351)

·         Abu Inan Faris al-Mutawakkil (1348–1358)

·         Abu Zayyan Muhammad II (1358; first reign)

·         Abu Yahya Abu Bakr ibn Faris (1358–1359)

·         Abu Salim Ibrahim ibn 'Ali (1359–1361)

·         Abu 'Amr Tashfin ibn 'Ali (1361)

·         Abu Zayyan Muhammad II (1361–1365; second reign)

·         Abu Faris Abd al-Aziz I al-Mustansir (1365–1372)

·         Abu Zayyan Muhammad III (1372–1374)

·         Abu 'l-Abbas Ahmad I al-Mustansir (1373–1384, 1387–1393)

·         Abu Faris Musa ibn Faris (1384–1386)

·         Abu Zayyan Muhammad IV ibn Ahmad I (1386)

·         Abu Zayyan Muhammad V ibn Ali (1386–1387)

·         Abu 'l-Abbas Ahmad II ibn Ahmad I (1387–1393)

·         Abu Faris Abd al-Aziz II ibn Ahmad II (1393–1396)

·         Abu 'Amir Abdallah ibn Ahmad II (1396–1397)

·         Abu Sa'id Uthman III (1398–1420)

·         Abu Muhammad Abd al-Haqq II (1420–1465)

The Wattasid Viziers, capital continued to be Fez

·         1420-1448: Abu Zakariya Yahya al-Wattasi

·         1448-1458: Ali ibn Yusuf

·         1458-1459: Yahya ibn Abi Zakariya Yahya

·         In 1465 came the raids and conquests by the Portuguese.

Wattasid Sultans

·         1472-1504: Abu Abd Allah al-Sheikh Muhammad ibn Yahya

·         1504-1526: Abu Abd Allah al-Burtuqali Muhammad ibn Muhammad

·         1526-1526: Abu al-Hasan Abu Hasan Ali ibn Muhammad

·         1526-1545: Abu al-Abbas Ahmad ibn Muhammad

·         1545-1547: Nasir ad-Din al-Qasri Muhammad ibn Ahmad

·         1547-1549: Abu al-Abbas Ahmad ibn Muhammad

·         1554-1554: Abu al-Hasan Abu Hasun Ali ibn Muhammad

Since that time and until today, Morocco had been succeeded by a series of Arab occupation dynasties.

Since the 16^th century, Morocco managed to avoid the Ottoman conquests. In 1893-1894, the Melillan War broke out between the Berber tribes of the Rif and the Spanish invaders. Unfortunately, the Spanish emerged victorious. France also had had a strong influence on the country and in 1912, Morocco was divided into French and Spanish protectorates, with an international zone in Tangier.

During World Wars I and II and the Spanish civil war, several divisions of Goumiers or regular troops and officers largely made up of Berbers and some Arabs served in the French army. Between 1921 and 1926, a Berber uprising in the Rif Mountains, led by Abd el-Krim, against the French and Spanish, led to the establishment of the Republic of the Rif. The Spanish alone lost more than 13,000 soldiers at Annual in July–August 1921. The rebellion and the Rif Republic were eventually suppressed by French and Spanish troops. In 1956, Morocco gained its independence but as an Arab-occupied country.

While Berberism had its roots before the independence Morocco and the rest of the Maghreb, it was limited to the Berber elite. It only began to gain success among the greater populace when North African states replaced their European colonial languages with Arabic and identified exclusively as Arabian nations, downplaying or ignoring the existence and the social specificity of Berbers. In Morocco, after the constitutional reforms of 2011, Berber became an official language, and is now taught as a compulsory language in all schools regardless of the area or the ethnicity.

But in spite of the constant Arab discrimination, Berbers have actually reached high positions in the social hierarchy across the Maghreb, for instance, many of the prime ministers of Morocco were Berber including the present incumbent (as of this writing) Saadeddine Othmani.